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This
timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world covers the development of Islamic science and Inventions in the Muslim world in the
Muslim world.
All year dates are given in the Gregorian calendar except where noted.
Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
8th century
- 700s - [petroleum; [civil engineering The streets of the newly constructed [Baghdad are paved with [tar, coming from the petroleum that oozes in natural [oil fields in the region.
* 700s - 800s >[cosmetics [Ziryab (Blackbird) starts a beauty institute in Spain.
* - - [Al-Ama'i, [Zoology, [Botany, [Animal husbandry.
* - - [Islamic mathematics [Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (Persian: خوارزمي, in Arabic became الخوارزمي ''al-Khwarizmi'', Latinized name ''Algorithm''). Developed the "[calculus of resolution and juxtaposition" (hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala), more briefly referred to as al-jabr, or [algebra. gives an idea on the utility of this development: "[Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed [rational numbers, [irrational numbers, [geometrical magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as "algebraic objects". It gave [mathematics a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before. As Rashed writes in (see also ):- Al-Khwarizmi's successors undertook a systematic application of [arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to [trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean [theory of numbers, algebra to [geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of [polynomial algebra, [combinatorial analysis, [numerical analysis, the numerical solution of [equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose."
* - - [zoology; [Linguistics 'Amr ibn Bahr [Al-Jahiz. [Zoology, [Arabic grammar, [rhetoric, [lexicography.
* late 700s - early [800s - [[Islamic music Mansour Zalzal of Kufa. Musician ([luth) and composer of the [Abbasid era. Contributed [musical scales that were later named after him (the [Mansouri scale) and introduced positions (intervals) within scales such as the [wasati-zalzal that was [equidistant from the [alwasati alqadima and [wasati al-fors. Made improvements on the design of the luth instrument and designed the Luth. Teacher of Is-haq [al-Mawsili.
=== 9th century ===
* - - various Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (latinized, Alkindus.) [Philosophy, Physics, Optics, Medicine, Mathematics, Cryptography, [Metallurgy. Worked at the [House of Wisdom which was set up in [.
* - chemistry; glass d. Abu-Moussa [Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latinized name, Geber,). Famous Persian chemist. First chemist known to produce [sulfuric acid, as well as many other chemicals and instruments. Wrote on adding color to glass by adding small quantities of metallic [oxides to the [glass, such as [manganese dioxide ([magnesia). This was a new advancement in glass industry unknown in antiquity. His works include "The elaboration of the Grand Elixir"; "The chest of wisdom" in which he writes on [nitric acid; [Kitab al-istitmam (translated to Latin later as [Summa Perfectionis); and others.
* ca. [Bayt al-Hikma ([House of Wisdom) set up in Baghdad. There [Greek language and [Indian mathematical and astronomy works are translated into [Arabic language.
* - mathematics Mahani (full name Abu Abdollah Muhammad ibn Isa Mahani - in Arabic [Al-Mahani). Conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra.
* - anatomy; astronomy; mathematics; mechanics Born [Thabit Ibn Qurra (latinized, Thebit.) Studied at Baghdad's House of Wisdom under the [Banu Musa brothers. Made many contributions to mathematics, particularly in [geometry and [number theory. He discovered the theorem by which pairs of [amicable numbers can be found; i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other. Later, [al-Baghdadi (b. 980) and [al-Haytham (born 965) developed variants of the theorem.
* - - Tabari (full name: [Ali ibn Sahl Rabban Al-Tabari). Medicine, Mathematics, [Calligraphy, Literature.
* mid 800s - [chemistry [Al-Kindi writes on the [distillation of [wine as that of [rose water and gives 107 recipes for [perfumes, in his book Kitab Kimia al-`otoor wa al-tas`eedat (book of the chemistry of perfumes and distillations.)
* - mathematics born [Abu Kamil of Egypt (full name, Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja) Forms an important link in the development of algebra between [al-Khwarizmi and [al-Karaji. Despite not using symbols, but writing powers of x in words, he had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as x^n \cdot x^m = x^{m+n} .
* - aviation, flight [Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman) made the first successful [parachute fall using a huge wing-like cloak to break his fall, near [Córdoba, Spain.
* - - astronomy - mathematics [Al-Battani (Albategnius) Works on astronomy, trigonometry etc.
* ca. - [Al-Farghani (Al-Fraganus) Astronomy, [Civil engineering.
* - - chemistry; medicine; ... Al-Razi (Rhazes) Medicine, [Ophthalmology, [Smallpox, Chemistry, Astronomy. Al-Razi wrote on Naft (naphta or [petroleum) and its distillates in his book "[Kitab sirr al-asrar" (book of the secret of secrets.) When choosing a site to build Baghdad's hospital, he hung pieces of fresh meat in different parts of the city. The location where the meat took the longest to [rot was the one he chose for building the hospital. Advocated that patients not be told their real condition so that [fear or [despair do not affect the [healing process. Wrote on [alkali, [caustic soda, [soap and [glycerine. Gave descriptions of equipment processes and methods in his book Kitab al-Asrar (book of secrets) in [.
* - - [Farabi (Al-Pharabius) [Sociology, [Logic, [Philosophy, [Political science, Music.
* - aviation, flight [Abbas Ibn Firnas made the first flight in a [Hang gliding with artificial [wings, but his landing was unsuccessful.
* - various [Abbas Ibn Firnas died. Mechanics of [Flight, [Planetarium, Artificial Crystals. Ibn Firnas investigated means of flight and was apparently injured due to a trial in which he attempted to fly off of a cliff using wings. One of the earliest records of attempts at flight.
* 800s - [chemistry; petroleum [Oilfields in [Baku, [Azerbaijan, generate commercial activities and industry. These oilfields, were wells are dug to get the Naft (or naphta, or crude [petroleum) are described by geographer [Masudi in the 10th century and by [Marco Polo in the [13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.
=== 10th century ===
* 900s [mathematics; accounting By this century, three numeral system are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the [sexagesimal, a remnant originating with the [Babylonians, with numerals denoted by letters of the [arabic alphabet and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the [Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which was used with various sets of symbols . Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld [blackboard) because "the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded." [Al-Uqlidisi (born [) modified these methods for pen and paper use . Eventually the advances enabled by the [decimal system led to its standard use throughout the region and the world.
* - astronomy [Al-Sufi (latinized name, Azophi).
* mathematics Born [al-Uqlidisi. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Hitherto, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier.
* - medicine [Al-Zahrawi (latinized name, Albucasis) [Surgery, Medicine. Called the "Father of Modern Surgery."
* - astronomy; mathematics [Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani. Mathematics, Astronomy, Geometry, Trigonometry.
* mathematics Born Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani. Wrote several [treatises using the finger-counting system of arithmetic, and was also an expert on the Indian numerals system. About the Indian system he wrote: "[it did not find application in business circles and among the population of the Eastern [Caliphate for a long time." Using the Indian numeral system, abu'l Wafa was able to extract [root (mathematics).
* mathematics Born [al-Karaji of Karaj and Baghdad (full name, Abu Bekr ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn Al-Karaji or al-Karkhi). Believed to be the "first person to completely free [algebra from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. He was first to define the [monomials x, x^2, x^3, ... and 1/x, 1/x^2, 1/x^3, ... and to give rules for [product (mathematics) of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several hundreds of years" . Discovered the [binomial theorem for [integer [exponents. states that this "was a major factor in the development of [numerical analysis based on the decimal system."
* geography; cartography; exploration; chemistry died Abul Hasan Ali [Masudi, best known as a cartographer, was also a traveler historian, etc. Al-mas`oudi described his visit to the [oilfields of [Baku. Wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj ([vitriol) water giving [sulfuric acid.
* - mathematics; optics; physics Born ibn al-Haitham (full name, ; latinized name, Alhazen). Possibly the first to classify all even [perfect numbers (i.e., numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors) as those of the form 2^{k-1}(2^k - 1) where 2^k - 1 is [prime number . Al-Haytham is also the first person to state [Wilson's theorem. if p is prime than 1+(p-1)! is divisible by p. says "It is called ''Wilson's theorem'' because of a comment by Waring in 1770 that John Wilson had noticed the result. There is no evidence that Wilson knew how to prove it. It was over 750 years later that [Joseph Louis Lagrange gave the first known proof to the statement in [.
* - humanities [Al-Mawardi (Alboacen) [Political science, [Sociology, [Jurisprudence, [Ethics.
* - mathematics; physics Abu Raihan [Al-Biruni; Astronomy, Mathematics. Determined Earth's circumference.
* mathematics Born [al-Baghdadi (full name, ). Studied a slight variant of [Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem on [amicable numbers. Al-Baghdadi also wrote texts comparing the three systems of counting and arithmetic used in the region during this period. Made improvements on the decimal system.
* - astronomy; mathematics; medicine; philosophy [Ibn Sina (Avicenna); Medicine, Philosophy, Mathematics, Astronomy.Is considered to be the father of modern medicine
* - astronomy, technology [Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi contructs the first [sextant in [Ray, Iran.
=== 11th century ===
* - [Islamic medicine, surgery, [Inventions in the Muslim world Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery, publishes his 30-volume medical encyclopedia, the ''Kitab [al-Tasrif'', which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European [University until the 16th century. The book first introduced the [plaster,Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''. inhalant [anesthesia, and many [surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 . [Oxford University Press. as well as the surgical uses of [catgut and [forceps, the [Ligature (medicine), [surgical needle, [scalpel, [curette, [retractor, surgical [spoon, [Sound (medical instrument), surgical [hook, surgical [rod, and [Speculum (medical),Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([cf. [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.) and bone [saw.Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''[The Independent'', 11 March 2006.
* - [Islamic mathematics [Al-Karaji writes a book containing the first known [Mathematical proof by [mathematical induction. He who used it to prove the [binomial theorem, [Pascal's triangle, and the sum of [integral [Cube (algebra).Victor J. Katz (1998). ''History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 255-259. [Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0321016181. He was "the first who introduced the [theory of [algebraic [calculus."F. Woepcke (1853). ''Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi''. [Paris.
*c. - physics, technology Ibn Yunus publishes his astronomical treatise ''Al-Zij al-Hakimi al-Kabir'' in [Egypt.Piero Ariotti (Winter, 1968). "Galileo on the Isochrony of the Pendulum", ''[Isis (journal)'' '''59''' (4), p. 414.
*c. - physics, mathematics [Abū Sahl al-Qūhī (Kuhi), discovers that the [weight of bodies vary with their distance from the [center of mass of the Earth, and solves [equations higher than the [Quadratic equation.
*c. - mathematics [Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi first states a special case of [Fermat's last theorem.
*c. - mathematics [Law of sines is discovered by [Islamic mathematics, but it is uncertain who discovers it first between [Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, [Abu Nasr Mansur, and [Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī.
* 11th century - [astronomy, technology Ibn Samh invents the Mechanical engineering [astrolabe in [al-Andalus.[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html Islam, Knowledge, and Science. [University of Southern California.
* [11th century - The [glass [mirror is invented in [al-Andalus.Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
* - - arithmetic, [Islamic astronomy, [earth sciences, [geology, [geometry, [Logic in Islamic philosophy, [Islamic mathematics, [music, [Islamic science, [Early Islamic philosophy, psychology [Avicenna (Ibn Sina) writes one of the first scientific [encyclopedias, ''[The Book of Healing''. Its contributions includes the astronomical theory that [Venus (planet) is closer to Earth than the Sun, and a geological hypothesis on two causes of [mountains.Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield (1965). ''The Discovery of Time'', p. 64. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
* - - biology - [Ibn Miskawayh discusses ideas on [evolution.
* - - astronomy Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī was the first to conduct elaborate [experiments related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the [Milky Way [galaxy to be a collection of numerous [Nebula [stars.Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, [Hasanuddin University.
* - - mechanics, physics [Ibn al-Haytham discusses the theory of [Gravitation between [masses, and it seems that he was aware of the [Magnitude (mathematics) of [acceleration due to [gravity. Ibn al-Haytham also discovered the law of [inertia, known as [Newton's laws of motion, when he stated that a body moves [perpetual motion unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of [Motion (physics).Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, [Routledge, New York, London.
* - - [Alchemy (Islam), chemistry, technology] Avicenna criticizes the theory of the Philosopher's stone.Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196-197. He also invents the chemical process of steam distillation and produces the first essential oils as a result. He also invents the air thermometer for use in his laboratory experiments.Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191.
- 1000 - 1037 - physics Avicenna, the father of the fundamental concept of momentum in physics,Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974. discovered the concept of momentum, when he referred to impetus as being proportional to weight times velocity, a precursor to the concept of momentum in Newton's laws of motion. His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of inertia in Newton's first law of motion.A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477–482.
- 1000 - 1038 - physics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), in his Epitome of Astronomy, was the first to insist that the Astronomical object "were accountable to the Physical law".Pierre Duhem (1908, 1969). To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- 1000 - 1038 - Ibn al-Haytham writes a book in which he argues for evolutionism.
- 1000 - 1048 - chemistry Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī criticizes the theory of the Philosopher's stone.Michael E. Marmura (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", Speculum 40 (4), p. 744-746.
- 1000 - 1048 - Indology, history] Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, considered "the first anthropology"Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10. and the father of Indology,Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette. wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean Basin and South Asia. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", Journal of the History of Ideas 59 (3), p. 389-403. Biruni has also been praised for his Islamic anthropology.Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", Anthropological Quarterly 68 (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.
- 1000 - 1048 - sciences, Indology, geodesy, geology] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who is considered the father of Indology, the father of geodesy, one of the first geology, and an influential geographer, hypothesized that India (disambiguation) was once covered by the Indian Ocean while observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers,Abdus Salam (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam, 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213. introduced techniques to measure the Earth and distances on it using triangulation, and measured the radius of the Earth as 6339.6 km, the most accurate up until the 16th century.
- 1020 - Avicenna, who is considered the father of modern medicine and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan. publishes his 14-volume medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine, which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European University until the 17th century. The book's contributions to medicine includes the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170. the discovery of Infectious disease, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and Nervous system ailments, as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.
- 1021 - physics, mathematics, Ophthalmology in medieval Islam, psychology, scientific method, surgery, technology] Ibn al-Haytham, who is considered the father of optics, the pioneer of the scientific method, the "first scientist",Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. (cf. Reviews of Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, The Critics, Barnes & Noble.) and the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology, completes his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books ever written in the history of physics. H. Salih, M. Al-Amri, M. El Gomati (2005). "The Miracle of Light", A World of Science 3 (3). UNESCO. The book drastically transformed the understanding of light and Visual perception, and introduced the experimental scientific method, hence the book is considered the root of experimental physics. It correctly explained and proved the modern intromission theory of visual perception, and described experiments on lens (optics), mirrors, refraction, Reflection (physics), and the dispersion of light into its constituent colours.Dr. Mahmoud Al Deek. "Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine", Al Shindagah, November-December 2004. It also explained binocular vision and the moon illusion, speculated on the speed of light, rectilinear propagation and Electromagnetism aspects of light,Hamarneh, p. 119. first stated Fermat's principle of least time, described an early version of Snell's law, and argued that Ray (optics) of light are streams of photonRashed (2007), p. 19. travelling in straight lines.J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2002). Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. The book also contains the earliest discussions and descriptions on psychophysics and experimental psychology,Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2). the psychology of visual perception,Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246. phenomenology, and the inventions of the pinhole camera, camera obscura,Nicholas J. Wade, Stanley Finger (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", Perception 30 (10), p. 1157-1177. and Parabolic reflector. In Islamic mathematics, the book formulated and solved "Alhazen's problem" geometrically, and developed and proved the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus using mathematical induction. In Islamic medicine and Ophthalmology in medieval Islam, the book also made important advances in eye surgery, as it correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time. The work also had an influence on the use of optical aids in Renaissance art and the development of the telescope and microscope.Richard Power (University of Illinois), Best Idea; Eyes Wide Open, New York Times, April 18, 1999.
- 1021 - 1037 - physics Avicenna "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of Subatomic particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. 1, p. 710. He also provided a sophisticated explanation for the rainbow phenomenon.Carl Benjamin Boyer (1954). "Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow", Osiris 11, p. 247-258 .
- 1025 - 1028 - Ibn al-Haytham, in his Doubts on Ptolemy, criticizes Ptolemy's astronomical system for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines, and circles.
- 1028 - 1087 - technology Arzachel (al-Zarqali) invents the "Saphaea", the first astrolabe that did not depend on the latitude of the observer and could be used anywhere. He also invents the equatorium,Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). Al-Zarqali (Arzachel), University of Indonesia. and discovers that the orbits of the planets are ellipses and not circles.Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 190.
- 1030 - Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī discussed the Indian astronomy of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his Ta'rikh al-Hind (Latinized as Indica). Biruni stated that Brahmagupta and others consider that the Earth's rotation on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.S. H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, p. 135, n. 13
- 1030 - 1048 - Abu Said Sinjari suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī did not reject.A. Baker, L. Chapter (2002) Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentrism and geocentric models,Michael E. Marmura (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", Speculum 40 (4), p. 744-746. he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University. He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
- 1031 - Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī completes his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia Canon Mas’udicus,Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", Saudi Aramco World, p. 2-16. in which he records his astronomical findings and formulates astronomical tables. It presents a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the celestial spheres from the central Earth.S. H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, p. 134 The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the acceleration of the planets, and first states that the motions of the Apsis and the precession are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than Ptolemy's estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual solar eclipses. Al-Biruni also described the Earth's gravitation as "the attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth."
- 1038 - Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in The Model of the Motions. His reform excluded cosmology, as he developed a systematic study of celestial kinematics that was completely geometry. This in turn led to innovative developments in infinitesimal geometry.Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 17, p. 7-55. Cambridge University Press. His reformed model was the first to reject the equantRashed (2007), p. 20, 53. and eccentricity,Rashed (2007), p. 33-34. free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,Rashed (2007), p. 20, 32-33. and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later.Rashed (2007), p. 51-52.
- 1044 or 1048 - 1123 Omar Khayyám, a mathematician and poet, "gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of cubic equations in a later work: 'If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is possible or impossible so that a paper, containing elements which are greatly useful in this art will be prepared.' " He later became the first to find general geometry solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He extracted root (mathematics) using the decimal system (Hindu-Arabic numeral system). He is well-known for his poetic work Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, but there is dispute whether the Maqamat, a famous diwan of poetry translated to English are actually his work.
- 1058 - 1111 theology Al-Ghazali (Algazel), judge and prolific thinker and writer on topics such as sociology, theology and philosophy. He critiqued the so-called Greek philosophers Ibn Sina, aka Avicenna and al-Farabi, aka Farabius. Wrote extensive expositions on Islamic tenets and foundations of jurisprudence. Also critiqued the Muslim scholastics (al-mutakallimun.) Was associated with sufism but he later critiqued it as well.
- 1070 - Juzjani, Abu Ubaid proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his Tarik al-Aflak. In his work, he indicated the so-called "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem.
- 1085 - 1099 - First wave of devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties, institutions, and infrastructure over a period of one hundred years: Fall of Muslim Toledo, Spain (1085), Malta (1090), Sicily (1091) and Jerusalem (1099). Several Crusades.
- 1091 - 1161 Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) Surgery, Medicine.
- 1099 - 1166 Muhammad Al-Idrisi (Dreses). Among his works are a world Map and the first known globe.
12th century
(
cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory",
Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 .) His theory of motion later has an important influence on later physicists like Galileo Galilei.Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)",
Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2), p. 163-193.
- 1100 - 1161 - surgery Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) invents the surgical procedure of tracheotomy in al-AndalusA. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", AlShindagah 68, Januray-February 2006.
| last = [Shlomo Pines
| title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah
| encyclopedia = [Dictionary of Scientific Biography
| volume = 1
| pages = 26-28
| publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons
| location = New York
| date = 1970
| isbn = 0684101149
-->
(
cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory",
Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 .) Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of
velocity.A. C. Crombie,
Augustine to Galileo 2, p. 67.
- 1100 - 1166 geography Muhammad al-Idrissi, aka Idris al-Saqalli aka al-sharif al-idrissi of Andalusia and Sicily. Said to draw the first correct map of the world "lawh al-tarsim" (plank of draught). His maps were used extensively during the explorations of the era of European renaissance. Roger II of Sicily commemorated his world map on a circle of silver weighing about 400 pounds. Works include Nozhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-&agrav;faq dedicated to Roger II of Sicily, which is a compendium of the geographic and sociologic knowledge of his time as well as descriptions of his own travels illustrated with over seventy maps; Kharitat al-`alam al-ma`mour min al-ard (Map of the inhabited regions of the earth) wherein he divided the world into 7 regions, the first extending from the equator to 23 degrees latitude, and the seventh being from 54 to 63 degrees followed by a region uninhabitable due to cold and snow.
- 1105 - 1200 - Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi (Alpetragius) are the first to propose planetary models without any equant, Deferent and epicycle. Al-Betrugi was also the first to discover that the planets are Luminosity.Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", Isis 63 (1), p. 39-47 .
- 1106 - 1138 - Ibn Bajjah (Ibn Bajjah or Avempace) writes books on Early Islamic philosophy, Islamic medicine, Islamic mathematics, Arabic poetry, and Arabic music.
- 1110 - 1185 - philosophy Abdubacer Ibn Tufayl of Spain. Philosophy, medicine, poetry, fiction. His most famous work is Hayy ibn Yaqzan, which is a spiritual investigation into the reality of the world narrated by a man who was raised from infancy by a roe or gazelle.
- 1121 - mechanics, physics, technology Al-Khazini publishes The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, in which he is the first to propose that the Gravitation and Potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth. This phenomenon is not proven until Newton's law of universal gravitation centuries later. Al-Khazini is also one of the first to clearly differentiate between force, mass, and weight, and he shows awareness of the weight of the air and of its decrease in density with altitude, and discovers that there is greater density of water when nearer to the Earth's centre.Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv, p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization. He also invents several scientific instruments, including the steelyard and hydrostatic balance.Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. VII, p. 346.
- 1126 - 1198 - physics Averroes (Ibn Rushd) is the first to define and measure force as "the rate at which Mechanical work is done in changing the Kinetic energy condition of a material Physical body"Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (3), p. 375-422 . and the first to correctly argue "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially Friction mass."Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (3), p. 375-422 .
- 1128 - 1198 - Islamic law, Islamic medicine, Islamic astronomy, theology] Averroes writes books on Early Islamic philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy, and theology.
- 1130 - Born al-Samawal. An important member of al-Karaji's school of algebra. Gave this definition of algebra: " is concerned with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known."
- 1135 - Born Sharafeddin Tusi. Follows al-Khayyam's application of algebra of geometry, rather than follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra. Wrote a treatise on cubic equations which describes thus: " treatise represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry." (quoted in ).
- 1135 - 1200 - technology Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī invents the linear astrolabe (staff of al-Tusi). Linear astrolabe, Encyclopædia Britannica.
- 1154 - Al-Kaysarani invents the striking clock in Syria.Abdel Aziz al-Jaraki (2007), When Ridhwan al-Sa’ati Anteceded Big Ben by More than Six Centuries, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
13th century
- 1200s - Al-Jawbari describes the preparation of rose water in the Book of Selected Disclosure of Secrets (Kitab kashf al-Asrar).
- 1200s - materials, glassmaking Arabic manuscript on the manufacture of false gemstones and diamonds. Also describes spirits of alum, spirits of saltpetre and spirits of salts (hydrochloric acid).
- 1206 - mechanics, technology Al-Jazari, the father of modern-day engineering and the father of robotics, publishes The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, in which he authors fifty inventions, including the crank (mechanism), connecting rod, Computer programming automaton, humanoid robot, Reciprocating engine, suction pipe, suction pump, Steam engine#Double-acting engine pump, valve, combination lock, cam, camshaft, segmental gear, the first mechanical engineering clocks driven by water and weights, and especially the crankshaft, which is considered the most important mechanical invention in history after the wheel.Ahmad Y Hassan. The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine. Other devices he invented include a hand washing device, machines for watermill, accurate calibration of orifices, lamination of timber to reduce warping, Mechanical equilibrium of
This timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world covers the development of Islamic science and Inventions in the Muslim world in the Muslim world.
All year dates are given in the Gregorian calendar except where noted.
Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
8th century
- 700s - [petroleum; [civil engineering The streets of the newly constructed [Baghdad are paved with [tar, coming from the petroleum that oozes in natural [oil fields in the region.
* 700s - 800s >[cosmetics [Ziryab (Blackbird) starts a beauty institute in Spain.
* - - [Al-Ama'i, [Zoology, [Botany, [Animal husbandry.
* - - [Islamic mathematics [Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (Persian: خوارزمي, in Arabic became الخوارزمي ''al-Khwarizmi'', Latinized name ''Algorithm''). Developed the "[calculus of resolution and juxtaposition" (hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala), more briefly referred to as al-jabr, or [algebra. gives an idea on the utility of this development: "[Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed [rational numbers, [irrational numbers, [geometrical magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as "algebraic objects". It gave [mathematics a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before. As Rashed writes in (see also ):- Al-Khwarizmi's successors undertook a systematic application of [arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to [trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean [theory of numbers, algebra to [geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of [polynomial algebra, [combinatorial analysis, [numerical analysis, the numerical solution of [equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose."
* - - [zoology; [Linguistics 'Amr ibn Bahr [Al-Jahiz. [Zoology, [Arabic grammar, [rhetoric, [lexicography.
* late 700s - early [800s - [[Islamic music Mansour Zalzal of Kufa. Musician ([luth) and composer of the [Abbasid era. Contributed [musical scales that were later named after him (the [Mansouri scale) and introduced positions (intervals) within scales such as the [wasati-zalzal that was [equidistant from the [alwasati alqadima and [wasati al-fors. Made improvements on the design of the luth instrument and designed the Luth. Teacher of Is-haq [al-Mawsili.
=== 9th century ===
* - - various Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (latinized, Alkindus.) [Philosophy, Physics, Optics, Medicine, Mathematics, Cryptography, [Metallurgy. Worked at the [House of Wisdom which was set up in [.
* - chemistry; glass d. Abu-Moussa [Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latinized name, Geber,). Famous Persian chemist. First chemist known to produce [sulfuric acid, as well as many other chemicals and instruments. Wrote on adding color to glass by adding small quantities of metallic [oxides to the [glass, such as [manganese dioxide ([magnesia). This was a new advancement in glass industry unknown in antiquity. His works include "The elaboration of the Grand Elixir"; "The chest of wisdom" in which he writes on [nitric acid; [Kitab al-istitmam (translated to Latin later as [Summa Perfectionis); and others.
* ca. [Bayt al-Hikma ([House of Wisdom) set up in Baghdad. There [Greek language and [Indian mathematical and astronomy works are translated into [Arabic language.
* - mathematics Mahani (full name Abu Abdollah Muhammad ibn Isa Mahani - in Arabic [Al-Mahani). Conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra.
* - anatomy; astronomy; mathematics; mechanics Born [Thabit Ibn Qurra (latinized, Thebit.) Studied at Baghdad's House of Wisdom under the [Banu Musa brothers. Made many contributions to mathematics, particularly in [geometry and [number theory. He discovered the theorem by which pairs of [amicable numbers can be found; i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other. Later, [al-Baghdadi (b. 980) and [al-Haytham (born 965) developed variants of the theorem.
* - - Tabari (full name: [Ali ibn Sahl Rabban Al-Tabari). Medicine, Mathematics, [Calligraphy, Literature.
* mid 800s - [chemistry [Al-Kindi writes on the [distillation of [wine as that of [rose water and gives 107 recipes for [perfumes, in his book Kitab Kimia al-`otoor wa al-tas`eedat (book of the chemistry of perfumes and distillations.)
* - mathematics born [Abu Kamil of Egypt (full name, Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja) Forms an important link in the development of algebra between [al-Khwarizmi and [al-Karaji. Despite not using symbols, but writing powers of x in words, he had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as x^n \cdot x^m = x^{m+n} .
* - aviation, flight [Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman) made the first successful [parachute fall using a huge wing-like cloak to break his fall, near [Córdoba, Spain.
* - - astronomy - mathematics [Al-Battani (Albategnius) Works on astronomy, trigonometry etc.
* ca. - [Al-Farghani (Al-Fraganus) Astronomy, [Civil engineering.
* - - chemistry; medicine; ... Al-Razi (Rhazes) Medicine, [Ophthalmology, [Smallpox, Chemistry, Astronomy. Al-Razi wrote on Naft (naphta or [petroleum) and its distillates in his book "[Kitab sirr al-asrar" (book of the secret of secrets.) When choosing a site to build Baghdad's hospital, he hung pieces of fresh meat in different parts of the city. The location where the meat took the longest to [rot was the one he chose for building the hospital. Advocated that patients not be told their real condition so that [fear or [despair do not affect the [healing process. Wrote on [alkali, [caustic soda, [soap and [glycerine. Gave descriptions of equipment processes and methods in his book Kitab al-Asrar (book of secrets) in [.
* - - [Farabi (Al-Pharabius) [Sociology, [Logic, [Philosophy, [Political science, Music.
* - aviation, flight [Abbas Ibn Firnas made the first flight in a [Hang gliding with artificial [wings, but his landing was unsuccessful.
* - various [Abbas Ibn Firnas died. Mechanics of [Flight, [Planetarium, Artificial Crystals. Ibn Firnas investigated means of flight and was apparently injured due to a trial in which he attempted to fly off of a cliff using wings. One of the earliest records of attempts at flight.
* 800s - [chemistry; petroleum [Oilfields in [Baku, [Azerbaijan, generate commercial activities and industry. These oilfields, were wells are dug to get the Naft (or naphta, or crude [petroleum) are described by geographer [Masudi in the 10th century and by [Marco Polo in the [13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.
=== 10th century ===
* 900s [mathematics; accounting By this century, three numeral system are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the [sexagesimal, a remnant originating with the [Babylonians, with numerals denoted by letters of the [arabic alphabet and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the [Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which was used with various sets of symbols . Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld [blackboard) because "the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded." [Al-Uqlidisi (born [) modified these methods for pen and paper use . Eventually the advances enabled by the [decimal system led to its standard use throughout the region and the world.
* - astronomy [Al-Sufi (latinized name, Azophi).
* mathematics Born [al-Uqlidisi. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Hitherto, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier.
* - medicine [Al-Zahrawi (latinized name, Albucasis) [Surgery, Medicine. Called the "Father of Modern Surgery."
* - astronomy; mathematics [Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani. Mathematics, Astronomy, Geometry, Trigonometry.
* mathematics Born Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani. Wrote several [treatises using the finger-counting system of arithmetic, and was also an expert on the Indian numerals system. About the Indian system he wrote: "[it did not find application in business circles and among the population of the Eastern [Caliphate for a long time." Using the Indian numeral system, abu'l Wafa was able to extract [root (mathematics).
* mathematics Born [al-Karaji of Karaj and Baghdad (full name, Abu Bekr ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn Al-Karaji or al-Karkhi). Believed to be the "first person to completely free [algebra from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. He was first to define the [monomials x, x^2, x^3, ... and 1/x, 1/x^2, 1/x^3, ... and to give rules for [product (mathematics) of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several hundreds of years" . Discovered the [binomial theorem for [integer [exponents. states that this "was a major factor in the development of [numerical analysis based on the decimal system."
* geography; cartography; exploration; chemistry died Abul Hasan Ali [Masudi, best known as a cartographer, was also a traveler historian, etc. Al-mas`oudi described his visit to the [oilfields of [Baku. Wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj ([vitriol) water giving [sulfuric acid.
* - mathematics; optics; physics Born ibn al-Haitham (full name, ; latinized name, Alhazen). Possibly the first to classify all even [perfect numbers (i.e., numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors) as those of the form 2^{k-1}(2^k - 1) where 2^k - 1 is [prime number . Al-Haytham is also the first person to state [Wilson's theorem. if p is prime than 1+(p-1)! is divisible by p. says "It is called ''Wilson's theorem'' because of a comment by Waring in 1770 that John Wilson had noticed the result. There is no evidence that Wilson knew how to prove it. It was over 750 years later that [Joseph Louis Lagrange gave the first known proof to the statement in [.
* - humanities [Al-Mawardi (Alboacen) [Political science, [Sociology, [Jurisprudence, [Ethics.
* - mathematics; physics Abu Raihan [Al-Biruni; Astronomy, Mathematics. Determined Earth's circumference.
* mathematics Born [al-Baghdadi (full name, ). Studied a slight variant of [Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem on [amicable numbers. Al-Baghdadi also wrote texts comparing the three systems of counting and arithmetic used in the region during this period. Made improvements on the decimal system.
* - astronomy; mathematics; medicine; philosophy [Ibn Sina (Avicenna); Medicine, Philosophy, Mathematics, Astronomy.Is considered to be the father of modern medicine
* - astronomy, technology [Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi contructs the first [sextant in [Ray, Iran.
=== 11th century ===
* - [Islamic medicine, surgery, [Inventions in the Muslim world Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery, publishes his 30-volume medical encyclopedia, the ''Kitab [al-Tasrif'', which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European [University until the 16th century. The book first introduced the [plaster,Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''. inhalant [anesthesia, and many [surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 . [Oxford University Press. as well as the surgical uses of [catgut and [forceps, the [Ligature (medicine), [surgical needle, [scalpel, [curette, [retractor, surgical [spoon, [Sound (medical instrument), surgical [hook, surgical [rod, and [Speculum (medical),Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([cf. [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.) and bone [saw.Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''[The Independent'', 11 March 2006.
* - [Islamic mathematics [Al-Karaji writes a book containing the first known [Mathematical proof by [mathematical induction. He who used it to prove the [binomial theorem, [Pascal's triangle, and the sum of [integral [Cube (algebra).Victor J. Katz (1998). ''History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 255-259. [Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0321016181. He was "the first who introduced the [theory of [algebraic [calculus."F. Woepcke (1853). ''Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi''. [Paris.
*c. - physics, technology Ibn Yunus publishes his astronomical treatise ''Al-Zij al-Hakimi al-Kabir'' in [Egypt.Piero Ariotti (Winter, 1968). "Galileo on the Isochrony of the Pendulum", ''[Isis (journal)'' '''59''' (4), p. 414.
*c. - physics, mathematics [Abū Sahl al-Qūhī (Kuhi), discovers that the [weight of bodies vary with their distance from the [center of mass of the Earth, and solves [equations higher than the [Quadratic equation.
*c. - mathematics [Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi first states a special case of [Fermat's last theorem.
*c. - mathematics [Law of sines is discovered by [Islamic mathematics, but it is uncertain who discovers it first between [Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, [Abu Nasr Mansur, and [Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī.
* 11th century - [astronomy, technology Ibn Samh invents the Mechanical engineering [astrolabe in [al-Andalus.[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html Islam, Knowledge, and Science. [University of Southern California.
* [11th century - The [glass [mirror is invented in [al-Andalus.Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
* - - arithmetic, [Islamic astronomy, [earth sciences, [geology, [geometry, [Logic in Islamic philosophy, [Islamic mathematics, [music, [Islamic science, [Early Islamic philosophy, psychology [Avicenna (Ibn Sina) writes one of the first scientific [encyclopedias, ''[The Book of Healing''. Its contributions includes the astronomical theory that [Venus (planet) is closer to Earth than the Sun, and a geological hypothesis on two causes of [mountains.Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield (1965). ''The Discovery of Time'', p. 64. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
* - - biology - [Ibn Miskawayh discusses ideas on [evolution.
* - - astronomy Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī was the first to conduct elaborate [experiments related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the [Milky Way [galaxy to be a collection of numerous [Nebula [stars.Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, [Hasanuddin University.
* - - mechanics, physics [Ibn al-Haytham discusses the theory of [Gravitation between [masses, and it seems that he was aware of the [Magnitude (mathematics) of [acceleration due to [gravity. Ibn al-Haytham also discovered the law of [inertia, known as [Newton's laws of motion, when he stated that a body moves [perpetual motion unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of [Motion (physics).Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, [Routledge, New York, London.
* - - [Alchemy (Islam), chemistry, technology] Avicenna criticizes the theory of the Philosopher's stone.Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196-197. He also invents the chemical process of steam distillation and produces the first essential oils as a result. He also invents the air thermometer for use in his laboratory experiments.Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191.
- 1000 - 1037 - physics Avicenna, the father of the fundamental concept of momentum in physics,Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974. discovered the concept of momentum, when he referred to impetus as being proportional to weight times velocity, a precursor to the concept of momentum in Newton's laws of motion. His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of inertia in Newton's first law of motion.A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477–482.
- 1000 - 1038 - physics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), in his Epitome of Astronomy, was the first to insist that the Astronomical object "were accountable to the Physical law".Pierre Duhem (1908, 1969). To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- 1000 - 1048 - chemistry Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī criticizes the theory of the Philosopher's stone.Michael E. Marmura (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", Speculum 40 (4), p. 744-746.
- 1000 - 1048 - Indology, history] Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, considered "the first anthropology"Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10. and the father of Indology,Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette. wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean Basin and South Asia. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", Journal of the History of Ideas 59 (3), p. 389-403. Biruni has also been praised for his Islamic anthropology.Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", Anthropological Quarterly 68 (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.
- 1000 - 1048 - sciences, Indology, geodesy, geology] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who is considered the father of Indology, the father of geodesy, one of the first geology, and an influential geographer, hypothesized that India (disambiguation) was once covered by the Indian Ocean while observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers,Abdus Salam (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam, 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213. introduced techniques to measure the Earth and distances on it using triangulation, and measured the radius of the Earth as 6339.6 km, the most accurate up until the 16th century.
- 1019 - In Afghanistan, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī observed and described the solar eclipse on April 8, 1019, and the lunar eclipse on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact latitudes of the stars during the lunar eclipse.
- 1020 - Avicenna, who is considered the father of modern medicine and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan. publishes his 14-volume medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine, which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European University until the 17th century. The book's contributions to medicine includes the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170. the discovery of Infectious disease, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and Nervous system ailments, as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.
- 1021 - physics, mathematics, Ophthalmology in medieval Islam, psychology, scientific method, surgery, technology] Ibn al-Haytham, who is considered the father of optics, the pioneer of the scientific method, the "first scientist",Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. (cf. Reviews of Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, The Critics, Barnes & Noble.) and the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology, completes his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books ever written in the history of physics. H. Salih, M. Al-Amri, M. El Gomati (2005). "The Miracle of Light", A World of Science 3 (3). UNESCO. The book drastically transformed the understanding of light and Visual perception, and introduced the experimental scientific method, hence the book is considered the root of experimental physics. It correctly explained and proved the modern intromission theory of visual perception, and described experiments on lens (optics), mirrors, refraction, Reflection (physics), and the dispersion of light into its constituent colours.Dr. Mahmoud Al Deek. "Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine", Al Shindagah, November-December 2004. It also explained binocular vision and the moon illusion, speculated on the speed of light, rectilinear propagation and Electromagnetism aspects of light,Hamarneh, p. 119. first stated Fermat's principle of least time, described an early version of Snell's law, and argued that Ray (optics) of light are streams of photonRashed (2007), p. 19. travelling in straight lines.J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2002). Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. The book also contains the earliest discussions and descriptions on psychophysics and experimental psychology,Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2). the psychology of visual perception,Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246. phenomenology, and the inventions of the pinhole camera, camera obscura,Nicholas J. Wade, Stanley Finger (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", Perception 30 (10), p. 1157-1177. and Parabolic reflector. In Islamic mathematics, the book formulated and solved "Alhazen's problem" geometrically, and developed and proved the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus using mathematical induction. In Islamic medicine and Ophthalmology in medieval Islam, the book also made important advances in eye surgery, as it correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time. The work also had an influence on the use of optical aids in Renaissance art and the development of the telescope and microscope.Richard Power (University of Illinois), Best Idea; Eyes Wide Open, New York Times, April 18, 1999.
- 1021 - 1037 - physics Avicenna "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of Subatomic particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. 1, p. 710. He also provided a sophisticated explanation for the rainbow phenomenon.Carl Benjamin Boyer (1954). "Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow", Osiris 11, p. 247-258 .
- 1021 - 1048 - Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī stated that light has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound.
- 1025 - 1028 - Ibn al-Haytham, in his Doubts on Ptolemy, criticizes Ptolemy's astronomical system for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines, and circles.
- 1028 - 1087 - technology Arzachel (al-Zarqali) invents the "Saphaea", the first astrolabe that did not depend on the latitude of the observer and could be used anywhere. He also invents the equatorium,Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). Al-Zarqali (Arzachel), University of Indonesia. and discovers that the orbits of the planets are ellipses and not circles.Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 190.
- 1030 - Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī discussed the Indian astronomy of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his Ta'rikh al-Hind (Latinized as Indica). Biruni stated that Brahmagupta and others consider that the Earth's rotation on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.S. H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, p. 135, n. 13
- 1030 - 1048 - Abu Said Sinjari suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī did not reject.A. Baker, L. Chapter (2002) Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentrism and geocentric models,Michael E. Marmura (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", Speculum 40 (4), p. 744-746. he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University. He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
- 1031 - Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī completes his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia Canon Mas’udicus,Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", Saudi Aramco World, p. 2-16. in which he records his astronomical findings and formulates astronomical tables. It presents a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the celestial spheres from the central Earth.S. H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, p. 134 The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the acceleration of the planets, and first states that the motions of the Apsis and the precession are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than Ptolemy's estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual solar eclipses. Al-Biruni also described the Earth's gravitation as "the attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth."
- 1038 - Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in The Model of the Motions. His reform excluded cosmology, as he developed a systematic study of celestial kinematics that was completely geometry. This in turn led to innovative developments in infinitesimal geometry.Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 17, p. 7-55. Cambridge University Press. His reformed model was the first to reject the equantRashed (2007), p. 20, 53. and eccentricity,Rashed (2007), p. 33-34. free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,Rashed (2007), p. 20, 32-33. and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later.Rashed (2007), p. 51-52.
- 1038 - 1075 - Ibn Bassal invents a Noria with a flywheel in al-Andalus.Ahmad Y Hassan, Flywheel Effect for a Saqiya.
- 1044 or 1048 - 1123 Omar Khayyám, a mathematician and poet, "gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of cubic equations in a later work: 'If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is possible or impossible so that a paper, containing elements which are greatly useful in this art will be prepared.' " He later became the first to find general geometry solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He extracted root (mathematics) using the decimal system (Hindu-Arabic numeral system). He is well-known for his poetic work Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, but there is dispute whether the Maqamat, a famous diwan of poetry translated to English are actually his work.
- 1058 - 1111 theology Al-Ghazali (Algazel), judge and prolific thinker and writer on topics such as sociology, theology and philosophy. He critiqued the so-called Greek philosophers Ibn Sina, aka Avicenna and al-Farabi, aka Farabius. Wrote extensive expositions on Islamic tenets and foundations of jurisprudence. Also critiqued the Muslim scholastics (al-mutakallimun.) Was associated with sufism but he later critiqued it as well.
- 1070 - Juzjani, Abu Ubaid proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his Tarik al-Aflak. In his work, he indicated the so-called "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem.
- 1085 - 1099 - First wave of devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties, institutions, and infrastructure over a period of one hundred years: Fall of Muslim Toledo, Spain (1085), Malta (1090), Sicily (1091) and Jerusalem (1099). Several Crusades.
12th century
- 1100 - 1138 - physics Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) is the first to state that there is always a Reaction (physics) force for every force exerted, a precursor to Gottfried Leibniz's idea of force which underlies Newton's laws of motion.Shlomo Pines (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, I, 442-468 468, Paris.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 .) His theory of motion later has an important influence on later physicists like Galileo Galilei.Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2), p. 163-193.
- 1100 - 1161 - surgery Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) invents the surgical procedure of tracheotomy in al-AndalusA. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", AlShindagah 68, Januray-February 2006.
| last = [Shlomo Pines
| title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah
| encyclopedia = [Dictionary of Scientific Biography
| volume = 1
| pages = 26-28
| publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons
| location = New York
| date = 1970
| isbn = 0684101149
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(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 .) Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of velocity.A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo 2, p. 67.
- 1100 - 1166 geography Muhammad al-Idrissi, aka Idris al-Saqalli aka al-sharif al-idrissi of Andalusia and Sicily. Said to draw the first correct map of the world "lawh al-tarsim" (plank of draught). His maps were used extensively during the explorations of the era of European renaissance. Roger II of Sicily commemorated his world map on a circle of silver weighing about 400 pounds. Works include Nozhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-&agrav;faq dedicated to Roger II of Sicily, which is a compendium of the geographic and sociologic knowledge of his time as well as descriptions of his own travels illustrated with over seventy maps; Kharitat al-`alam al-ma`mour min al-ard (Map of the inhabited regions of the earth) wherein he divided the world into 7 regions, the first extending from the equator to 23 degrees latitude, and the seventh being from 54 to 63 degrees followed by a region uninhabitable due to cold and snow.
- 1105 - 1200 - Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi (Alpetragius) are the first to propose planetary models without any equant, Deferent and epicycle. Al-Betrugi was also the first to discover that the planets are Luminosity.Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", Isis 63 (1), p. 39-47 .
- 1110 - 1185 - philosophy Abdubacer Ibn Tufayl of Spain. Philosophy, medicine, poetry, fiction. His most famous work is Hayy ibn Yaqzan, which is a spiritual investigation into the reality of the world narrated by a man who was raised from infancy by a roe or gazelle.
- 1121 - mechanics, physics, technology Al-Khazini publishes The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, in which he is the first to propose that the Gravitation and Potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth. This phenomenon is not proven until Newton's law of universal gravitation centuries later. Al-Khazini is also one of the first to clearly differentiate between force, mass, and weight, and he shows awareness of the weight of the air and of its decrease in density with altitude, and discovers that there is greater density of water when nearer to the Earth's centre.Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv, p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization. He also invents several scientific instruments, including the steelyard and hydrostatic balance.Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. VII, p. 346.
- 1126 - 1198 - physics Averroes (Ibn Rushd) is the first to define and measure force as "the rate at which Mechanical work is done in changing the Kinetic energy condition of a material Physical body"Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (3), p. 375-422 . and the first to correctly argue "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially Friction mass."Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (3), p. 375-422 .
- 1126 - 1198 - Averroes rejects the Deferent and epicycle introduced by Ptolemy. He rejects the Ptolemaic model and instead argues for a strictly concentric model of the universe.Owen Gingerich (April 1986). "Islamic astronomy", Scientific American 254 (10), p. 74.
- 1130 - Born al-Samawal. An important member of al-Karaji's school of algebra. Gave this definition of algebra: " is concerned with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known."
- 1135 - Born Sharafeddin Tusi. Follows al-Khayyam's application of algebra of geometry, rather than follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra. Wrote a treatise on cubic equations which describes thus: " treatise represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry." (quoted in ).
- 1135 - 1200 - technology Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī invents the linear astrolabe (staff of al-Tusi). Linear astrolabe, Encyclopædia Britannica.
- 1154 - Al-Kaysarani invents the striking clock in Syria.Abdel Aziz al-Jaraki (2007), When Ridhwan al-Sa’ati Anteceded Big Ben by More than Six Centuries, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
13th century
- 1200s - Al-Jawbari describes the preparation of rose water in the Book of Selected Disclosure of Secrets (Kitab kashf al-Asrar).
- 1200s - materials, glassmaking Arabic manuscript on the manufacture of false gemstones and diamonds. Also describes spirits of alum, spirits of saltpetre and spirits of salts (hydrochloric acid).
- 1206 - mechanics, technology Al-Jazari, the father of modern-day engineering and the father of robotics, publishes The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, in which he authors fifty inventions, including the crank (mechanism), connecting rod, Computer programming automaton, humanoid robot, Reciprocating engine, suction pipe, suction pump, Steam engine#Double-acting engine pump, valve, combination lock, cam, camshaft, segmental gear, the first mechanical engineering clocks driven by water and weights, and especially the crankshaft, which is considered the most important mechanical invention in history after the wheel.Ahmad Y Hassan. The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine. Other devices he invented include a hand washing device, machines for watermill, accurate calibration of orifices, lamination of timber to reduce warping, Mechanical equilibrium of
